L. Arnaud and E. Haubruge, INSECTICIDE RESISTANCE ENHANCES MALE REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS IN A BEETLE, Evolution, vol.89, issue.12, pp.2435-2444, 2002.
DOI : 10.1093/aesa/89.3.486

M. Aschner and E. J. Martinez-finley, Revelations from the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans on the complex interplay of metal toxicological mechanisms, Journal of Toxicology, p.895236, 2011.

N. R. Athrey, P. L. Leberg, and P. L. Klerks, LABORATORY CULTURING AND SELECTION FOR INCREASED RESISTANCE TO CADMIUM REDUCE GENETIC VARIATION IN THE LEAST KILLIFISH, HETERANDRIA FORMOSA, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, vol.26, issue.9, pp.1916-1921, 2007.
DOI : 10.1897/06-589R.1

G. Bell and S. Collins, Adaptation, extinction and global change, Evolutionary Applications, vol.24, issue.113, pp.3-16, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.tb00557.x
URL : http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1752-4571.2007.00011.x/pdf

J. Bergelson and C. B. Purrington, Surveying Patterns in the Cost of Resistance in Plants, The American Naturalist, vol.148, issue.3, pp.536-558, 1996.
DOI : 10.1086/285938

C. Braendle, J. Milloz, and M. Félix, Mechanisms and Evolution of Environmental Responses in Caenorhabditis elegans, Current Topics in Developmental Biology, vol.80, pp.171-207, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/S0070-2153(07)80005-6
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00199394

J. M. Brausch and P. N. Smith, Development of resistance to cyfluthrin and naphthalene among Daphnia magna, Ecotoxicology, vol.23, issue.Suppl 4, pp.600-609, 2009.
DOI : 10.1093/jee/47.1.129

A. Buckling, R. Kassen, G. Bell, and P. B. Rainey, Disturbance and diversity in experimental microcosms, Nature, vol.163, issue.6815, pp.961-964, 2000.
DOI : 10.1038/163688a0

J. J. Burdon and P. H. Thrall, The fitness costs to plants of resistance to pathogens, Genome Biology, 2003.

L. Byerly, R. C. Cassada, and R. L. Russell, The life cycle of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, Developmental Biology, vol.51, issue.1, pp.23-33, 1976.
DOI : 10.1016/0012-1606(76)90119-6

B. Charlesworth and K. A. Hughes, The maintenance of genetic variation in life-history traits, Evolutionary genetics, pp.369-392, 2000.

S. Collins, Many Possible Worlds: Expanding the Ecological Scenarios in Experimental Evolution, Evolutionary Biology, vol.312, issue.1, pp.3-14, 2011.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1123539

D. O. Conover and E. T. Schultz, Phenotypic similarity and the evolutionary significance of countergradient variation, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.10, issue.6, pp.248-252, 1995.
DOI : 10.1016/S0169-5347(00)89081-3

V. S. Cooper and R. E. Lenski, The population genetics of ecological specialization in evolving Escherichia coli populations, Nature, vol.27, issue.6805, pp.736-739, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0167-7012(96)00948-7

T. F. Cooper and R. E. Lenski, Experimental evolution with E. coli in diverse resource environments. I. Fluctuating environments promote divergence of replicate populations, BMC Evolutionary Biology, vol.10, issue.1, 2010.
DOI : 10.1186/1471-2148-10-11

C. Coustau, C. Chevillon, and R. Constant, Resistance to xenobiotics and parasites: Can we count the cost? Trends in Ecology and Evolution, pp.378-383, 2000.

M. Coutellec and C. Barata, An introduction to evolutionary processes in ecotoxicology, Ecotoxicology, vol.23, issue.Suppl 12, pp.493-496, 2011.
DOI : 10.1897/03-96
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01453831

D. R. Denver, P. C. Dolan, L. J. Wilhelm, W. Sung, J. I. Lucas-lledó et al., A genome-wide view of Caenorhabditis elegans base-substitution mutation processes, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, pp.16310-16314, 2009.
DOI : 10.1093/molbev/msg072

H. A. Dugan, S. L. Bartlett, S. M. Burke, J. P. Doubek, F. E. Krivak-tetley et al., Salting our freshwater lakes, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, pp.4453-4458, 2017.
DOI : 10.18637/jss.v062.i01
URL : http://www.pnas.org/content/114/17/4453.full.pdf

M. Dutilleul, J. Bonzom, B. Goussen, C. Lecomte, F. Daian et al., Rapid evolutionary responses of life history traits to different experimentally-induced pollutions in Caenorhabditis elegans, BMC Evolutionary Biology, vol.53, issue.114, p.252, 2014.
DOI : 10.2307/2640896
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01770489

M. Dutilleul, B. Goussen, J. Bonzom, S. Galas, and D. Réale, Pollution breaks down the expression of genetic structure of life history traits in Caenorhabditis elegans, PLoS ONE, vol.10, p.116214, 2015.

M. Dutilleul, L. Lemaire, D. Réale, C. Lecomte, S. Galas et al., Rapid phenotypic changes in Caenorhabditis elegans under uranium exposure, Ecotoxicology, vol.22, issue.2, pp.862-868, 2013.
DOI : 10.1897/1551-5028(2003)022<0313:RTSFCR>2.0.CO;2

D. S. Falconer and T. F. Mackay, Introduction to quantitative genetics, 1996.

J. D. Fry, The " general vigor " problem: Can antagonistic pleiotropy be detected when genetic covariances are positive? Evolution, pp.327-333, 1993.
DOI : 10.2307/2410143

A. Gelman, Scaling regression inputs by dividing by two standard deviations, Statistics in Medicine, vol.96, issue.15, pp.2865-2873, 2008.
DOI : 10.1007/978-1-4757-3462-1

P. L. Gillis, L. C. Diener, T. B. Reynoldson, and D. G. Dixon, (Diptera): Correlation with reproduction and growth, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, vol.44, issue.9, pp.1836-1844, 2002.
DOI : 10.1002/etc.5620151206

A. Giovanetti, S. Fesenko, M. L. Cozzella, L. D. Asencio, and U. Sansone, Bioaccumulation and biological effects in the earthworm Eisenia fetida exposed to natural and depleted uranium, Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, vol.101, issue.6, pp.509-516, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2010.03.003

B. Goussen, R. Beaudouin, M. Dutilleul, A. Buisset-goussen, J. Bonzom et al., Energy-based modelling to assess effects of chemicals on Caenorhabditis elegans: A case study on uranium, Chemosphere, vol.120, pp.507-514, 2015.
DOI : 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.09.006
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01083767

R. N. Guedes, E. E. Oliveira, N. M. Guedes, B. Ribeiro, and J. E. Serrão, Cost and mitigation of insecticide resistance in the maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais, Physiological Entomology, vol.80, issue.1, pp.30-38, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/S0048-3575(03)00079-8

J. D. Hadfield, MCMC methods for multi-response generalized linear mixed models: The MCMCglmm R package, Journal of Statistical Software, vol.33, pp.1-22, 2010.

P. W. Hedrick, Genetic Polymorphism in Heterogeneous Environments: A Decade Later, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, vol.17, issue.1, pp.535-566, 1986.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.es.17.110186.002535

A. A. Hoffmann and P. A. Parsons, Evolutionary genetics and environmental stress, 1991.

P. Iraeta, C. Monasterio, A. Salvador, and J. A. Díaz, Mediterranean hatchling lizards grow faster at higher altitude: a reciprocal transplant experiment, Functional Ecology, vol.57, issue.5, pp.865-872, 2006.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1095-8312.2002.00054.x

M. Jansen, L. De-meester, A. Cielen, C. C. Buser, and R. Stoks, The interplay of past and current stress exposure on the water flea Daphnia, Functional Ecology, vol.38, issue.5, pp.974-982, 2011.
DOI : 10.1071/ZO9900697

M. Jansen, R. Stoks, A. Coors, W. Van-doorslaer, and L. De-meester, COLLATERAL DAMAGE: RAPID EXPOSURE-INDUCED EVOLUTION OF PESTICIDE RESISTANCE LEADS TO INCREASED SUSCEPTIBILITY TO PARASITES, Evolution, vol.22, issue.9, pp.2681-2691, 2011.
DOI : 10.1897/1551-5028(2003)022<0313:RTSFCR>2.0.CO;2

J. Jasmin and R. Kassen, On the experimental evolution of specialization and diversity in heterogeneous environments, Ecology Letters, vol.143, issue.4, pp.272-281, 2007.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.0404397101

G. C. Jiang, S. Hughes, S. R. Stürzenbaum, L. Evje, T. Syversen et al., Caenorhabditis elegans Metallothioneins Protect against Toxicity Induced by Depleted Uranium, Toxicological Sciences, vol.372, issue.2, pp.345-354, 2009.
DOI : 10.1006/abbi.1999.1413
URL : https://academic.oup.com/toxsci/article-pdf/111/2/345/10938452/kfp161.pdf

R. Kassen, The experimental evolution of specialists, generalists, and the maintenance of diversity, Journal of Evolutionary Biology, vol.148, issue.2, pp.173-190, 2002.
DOI : 10.1086/285902

T. J. Kawecki, R. E. Lenski, D. Ebert, B. Hollis, I. Olivieri et al., Experimental evolution, Trends in Ecology and Evolution, pp.547-560, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tree.2012.06.001
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00162893

P. L. Klerks, L. Xie, and J. S. Levinton, Quantitative genetics approaches to study evolutionary processes in ecotoxicology; a perspective from research on the evolution of resistance, Ecotoxicology, vol.23, issue.3, pp.513-523, 2011.
DOI : 10.1897/03-96

B. Koskella, D. M. Lin, A. Buckling, and J. N. Thompson, The costs of evolving resistance in heterogeneous parasite environments, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.24, issue.6025, pp.1896-1903, 2012.
DOI : 10.2307/2403797

A. R. Kraaijeveld and H. C. Godfrey, Trade-off between parasitoid resistance and larval competitive ability in Drosophila melanogaster, Nature, vol.48, issue.6648, pp.278-280, 1997.
DOI : 10.1007/978-1-4899-3242-6

S. Lagauzère, R. Terrail, and J. Bonzom, Ecotoxicity of uranium to Tubifex tubifex worms (Annelida, Clitellata, Tubificidae) exposed to contaminated sediment, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, vol.72, issue.2, pp.527-537, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2008.04.021

T. Lamitina, C. G. Huang, and K. Strange, Genome-wide RNAi screening identifies protein damage as a regulator of osmoprotective gene expression, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, pp.12173-12178, 2006.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1061603

S. T. Lamitina, R. Morrison, G. W. Moeckel, and K. Strange, to extreme osmotic stress, American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology, vol.286, issue.4, pp.785-791, 2004.
DOI : 10.1104/pp.109.4.1395

R. Levins, Evolution in changing environments, 1968.

P. C. Lopes, E. Sucena, M. E. Santos, and S. Magalhães, Rapid Experimental Evolution of Pesticide Resistance in C. elegans Entails No Costs and Affects the Mating System, PLoS ONE, vol.274, issue.11, 2008.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0003741.t001

B. G. Lottermoser, P. M. Ashley, and M. T. Costelloe, Contaminant dispersion at the rehabilitated Mary Kathleen uranium mine, Australia, Environmental Geology, vol.290, issue.6, pp.748-761, 2005.
DOI : 10.2138/am-2003-11-1235

T. F. Mackay, J. D. Fry, R. F. Lyman, and S. V. Nuzhdin, Polygenic mutation in Drosophila melanogaster: Estimates from response to selection of inbred strains, Genetics, vol.136, pp.937-951, 1994.

S. Magalhães, A. Cailleau, E. Blanchet, and I. Olivieri, Do mites evolving in alternating host plants adapt to host switch?, Journal of Evolutionary Biology, vol.166, issue.9, pp.1956-1964, 2014.
DOI : 10.1086/491800

T. Mathews, K. Beaugelin-seiller, J. Garnier-laplace, R. Gilbin, C. Adam et al., A Probabilistic Assessment of the Chemical and Radiological Risks of Chronic Exposure to Uranium in Freshwater Ecosystems, Environmental Science & Technology, vol.43, issue.17, pp.6684-6690, 2009.
DOI : 10.1021/es9005288

C. Mccart, A. Buckling, and R. H. Constant, DDT resistance in flies carries no cost, Current Biology, vol.15, issue.15, pp.587-589, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.cub.2005.07.054

J. A. Mckenzie, Ecological and evolutionary aspects of insecticide resistance, 1996.

M. H. Medina, J. A. Correa, and C. Barata, Micro-evolution due to pollution: Possible consequences for ecosystem responses to toxic stress, Chemosphere, vol.67, issue.11, pp.2105-2114, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.12.024

A. C. Miller, M. Stewart, K. Brooks, L. Shi, and N. Page, Depleted uranium-catalyzed oxidative DNA damage: absence of significant alpha particle decay, Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, vol.91, issue.1, pp.246-252, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0162-0134(02)00391-4

P. O. Mireji, J. Keating, A. Hassanali, C. M. Mbogo, M. N. Muturi et al., Biological cost of tolerance to heavy metals in the mosquito Anopheles gambiae, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, vol.243, issue.2, pp.101-107, 2010.
DOI : 10.1093/jmedent/35.6.948

A. J. Morgan, P. Kille, and S. R. Stürzenbaum, Microevolution and Ecotoxicology of Metals in Invertebrates, Environmental Science & Technology, vol.41, issue.4, pp.1085-1096, 2007.
DOI : 10.1021/es061992x

T. A. Mousseau and C. W. Fox, The adaptive significance of maternal effects, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.13, issue.10, pp.403-407, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01472-4

T. A. Mousseau, T. Uller, E. Wapstra, and A. V. Badyaev, Evolution of maternal effects: past and present, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol.364, issue.1, pp.1035-1038, 2009.
DOI : 10.1098/rstb.2008.0238

B. Müller and R. Gächter, Increasing chloride concentrations in Lake Constance: characterization of sources and estimation of loads, Aquatic Sciences, vol.329, issue.1, pp.101-112, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/S0043-1354(99)00129-3

C. Nowak, C. Vogt, M. Pfenninger, K. Schwenk, J. Oehlmann et al., Rapid genetic erosion in pollutant-exposed experimental chironomid populations, Environmental Pollution, vol.157, issue.3, pp.881-886, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.envpol.2008.11.005

M. Pigliucci and K. Preston, Phenotypic integration: studying the ecology and evolution of complex phenotypes, Ecology Letters, vol.7, issue.3, 2004.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1420-9101.1994.7060665.x

L. Posthuma and N. M. Van-straalen, Heavy-metal adaptation in terrestrial invertebrates: A review of occurrence, genetics, physiology and ecological consequences, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Pharmacology, Toxicology and Endocrinology, vol.106, issue.1, pp.11-38, 1993.
DOI : 10.1016/0742-8413(93)90251-F

D. E. Promislow and P. H. Harvey, Living fast and dying young: A comparative analysis of life-history variation among mammals, Journal of Zoology, vol.50, issue.No. 67, pp.417-437, 1990.
DOI : 10.4098/AT.arch.66-26

R. Development and C. Team, R: A language and environment for statistical computing, Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2012.

K. Räsänen and L. E. Kruuk, Maternal effects and evolution at ecological time-scales, Functional Ecology, vol.28, issue.3, pp.408-421, 2007.
DOI : 10.1038/sj.hdy.6800140

X. Reboud and G. Bell, Experimental evolution in Chlamydomonas. III. Evolution of specialist and generalist types in environments that vary in space and time, Heredity, vol.78, issue.5, pp.507-514, 1997.
DOI : 10.1038/hdy.1997.79

D. H. Reed, E. H. Lowe, D. A. Briscoe, and R. Frankham, FITNESS AND ADAPTATION IN A NOVEL ENVIRONMENT: EFFECT OF INBREEDING, PRIOR ENVIRONMENT, AND LINEAGE, Evolution, vol.152, issue.8, pp.1822-1828, 2003.
DOI : 10.1554/0014-3820(2001)055[0909:MMILYP]2.0.CO;2

P. Rengasamy, World salinization with emphasis on Australia, Journal of Experimental Botany, vol.57, issue.5, pp.1017-1023, 2006.
DOI : 10.1017/CBO9780511815577
URL : https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article-pdf/57/5/1017/1798842/erj108.pdf

D. Reznick, L. Nunney, and A. Tessier, Big houses, big cars, superfleas and the costs of reproduction, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol.15, issue.10, pp.421-425, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0169-5347(00)01941-8

D. A. Roff, Life history evolution, 2002.

D. A. Roff and D. J. Fairbairn, The evolution of trade-offs: where are we?, Journal of Evolutionary Biology, vol.8, issue.2, pp.433-447, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/0169-4758(96)80650-8

M. R. Rose, H. B. Passananti, A. K. Chippindale, J. P. Phelan, M. Matos et al., The Effects of Evolution are Local: Evidence from Experimental Evolution in Drosophila, Integrative and Comparative Biology, vol.45, issue.3, pp.486-491, 2005.
DOI : 10.1093/icb/45.3.486

C. J. Salice, T. A. Anderson, and G. Roesijadi, Adaptive responses and latent costs of multigeneration cadmium exposure in parasite resistant and susceptible strains of a freshwater snail, Ecotoxicology, vol.424, issue.6946, pp.1466-1475, 2010.
DOI : 10.1897/1551-5028(2003)022<0313:RTSFCR>2.0.CO;2

S. M. Scheiner, Genetics and Evolution of Phenotypic Plasticity, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, vol.24, issue.1, pp.35-68, 1993.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.es.24.110193.000343

R. M. Sibly and P. Calow, A life-cycle theory of responses to stress, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, vol.42, issue.1-2, pp.101-116, 1989.
DOI : 10.2307/2409246

D. J. Spiegelhalter, A. Thomas, N. G. Best, and D. Lunn, WinBUGS version 1.4.2 usermanual, 2007.

S. C. Stearns, The Influence of Size and Phylogeny on Patterns of Covariation among Life-History Traits in the Mammals, Oikos, vol.41, issue.2, pp.173-187, 1983.
DOI : 10.2307/3544261

H. Teotónio, S. Carvalho, D. Manoel, M. Roque, and I. M. Chelo, Evolution of Outcrossing in Experimental Populations of Caenorhabditis elegans, PLoS ONE, vol.22, issue.4, 2012.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0035811.s005

D. Tilman and C. Lehman, Human-caused environmental change: Impacts on plant diversity and evolution, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.153, issue.1, pp.5433-5440, 2001.
DOI : 10.1086/303182
URL : http://www.pnas.org/content/98/10/5433.full.pdf

M. Travisano and R. E. Lenski, Long-term experimental evolution in Escherichia coli. IV. Targets of selection and the specificity of adaptation, Genetics, vol.143, pp.15-26, 1996.

E. L. Tsalik and O. Hobert, Functional mapping of neurons that control locomotory behavior inCaenorhabditis elegans, Journal of Neurobiology, vol.24, issue.2, pp.178-197, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80849-1

P. E. Turner and S. F. Elena, Cost of host radiation in an RNA virus, Genetics, vol.156, pp.1465-1470, 2000.

P. Verwey and P. D. Vermeulen, Influence of irrigation on the level, salinity and flow of groundwater at Vaalharts Irrigation Scheme, Water SA, vol.37, issue.2, pp.155-164, 2011.
DOI : 10.4314/wsa.v37i2.65861

T. J. Ward and W. E. Robinson, EVOLUTION OF CADMIUM RESISTANCE IN DAPHNIA MAGNA, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, vol.24, issue.9, pp.2341-2349, 2005.
DOI : 10.1897/04-429R.1

S. A. Watmough and N. M. Dickinson, Multiple Metal Resistance and Co-resistance in Acer pseudoplatanus L. (Sycamore) Callus Cultures, Annals of Botany, vol.76, issue.5, pp.465-472, 1995.
DOI : 10.1006/anbo.1995.1121

G. C. Williams, PLEIOTROPY, NATURAL SELECTION, AND THE EVOLUTION OF SENESCENCE, Evolution, vol.90, issue.4, pp.398-411, 1957.
DOI : 10.1086/281903

L. Xie, P. L. Klerks, M. Dutilleul, D. Réale, B. Goussen et al., Responses to selection for cadmium resistance in the least killifish, Heterandria formosa SUPPORTING INFORMATION Additional Supporting Information may be found online in the supporting information tab for this article. How to cite this article Adaptation costs to constant and alternating polluted environments, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry Evol Appl, vol.2200, pp.313-3201, 2003.